Долг: первые 5000 лет истории - Дэвид Гребер

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Примечания

1

С тем ожидаемым результатом, что строили их не для облегчения передвижения мальгашей по их стране, а в основном для перевозки продуктов с плантаций в порты. Оттуда товары экспортировались, а деньги от экспорта шли на строительство шоссейных и железных дорог — и круг замыкался.

2

Соединенные Штаты, например, признали Республику Гаити лишь в 1860 году. Франция упорно продолжала настаивать на своем, и в конце концов Республика Гаити была вынуждена выплатить эквивалент 21 миллиарда долларов с 1925 по 1946 год: в течение большей части этого периода она была оккупирована американской армией.

3

Поскольку правительство не считало целесообразным платить за содержание несостоятельных должников, заключенные должны были сами полностью покрывать расходы на свое пребывание за решеткой. Если они не могли этого делать, они просто умирали с голоду.

4

Если мы будем рассматривать ответственность за уплату налогов как долг, то должников — подавляющее большинство; долги и налоги тесно связаны, поскольку в истории необходимость собрать деньги для уплаты налогов всегда была самой частой причины залезания в долги.

5

И это только те движения, историю которых мне удалось проследить. То, что он говорит о Греции и Риме, полностью применимо к Японии, Индии или Китаю.

6

Саймон Джонсон, ведущий экономист МВФ в то время, кратко изложил эту историю в недавней статье в газете The Atlantic: «Почти все регуляторы, законодатели и ученые считали, что менеджеры этих банков знали, что делали. Сейчас выясняется, что нет. Например, в 2005 году отдел финансовых продуктов компании AIG получил 2,5 млрд. долларов чистой прибыли до вычета налогов благодаря страхованию по заниженной цене сложных и малопонятных ценных бумаг. Эта стратегия, которую часто описывают как “собирание монеток перед движущимся паровым катком”, приносит прибыль в обычные годы и грозит катастрофой в плохие, как это было прошлой осенью, когда объем обязательств по страхованию ценных бумаг, предъявленных к оплате компании AIG, превысил 400 млрд. долларов. К сегодняшнему дню правительство США, пытаясь спасти компанию, выделило около 180 млрд. долларов в виде инвестиций и кредитов на покрытие потерь, которые AIG исходя из своих сложных моделей оценки рисков считала невозможными» (Johnson, 2010). Конечно, Джонсон не принимает в расчет вероятность того, что в AIG прекрасно знали, что может произойти, но не обращали на это внимания, потому что верили, что паровой каток раздавит кого-нибудь другого.